8 Critical Cold Sore Stages
Posted: Thursday, December 01, 2005
by Denny Bodoh
http://www.3daycoldsorecure.com
Let's look at the 8 distinct cold sore stages, and what you can do now to lessen the severity, discomfort and length of your cold sore event.
Cold sore stages 2-8 are the active stages and you are very contagious during this time. Usually 3 to 4 weeks is the average life-span of a cold sore. Much depends on your health and choice of treatments for each of your cold sore stages.
COLD SORE STAGE: #1 - LATENT - Here the herpes simplex virus (also referred to as the cold sore virus) is hiding in the nerve ganglia near the back of the jaw on the same side as your sore usually appears.
Cold sore stages 2-8 are the active stages and you are very contagious during this time. Usually 3 to 4 weeks is the average life-span of a cold sore. Much depends on your health and choice of treatments for each of your cold sore stages.
COLD SORE STAGE: #1 - LATENT - Here the herpes simplex virus (also referred to as the cold sore virus) is hiding in the nerve ganglia near the back of the jaw on the same side as your sore usually appears.
Your cold sore virus may "sleep" for weeks or years without incident. Your body's defense "soldiers" keep them in check. When there is stress in another part of your body, the defenses may drop at this location. Then the virus may wake up and travel to the surface to replicate.
COLD SORE STAGE: # 2 - PRODROME - The cold sore virus reproductive cycle begins here. The cold sore virus travels down your nerve fibers to the surface. This movement causes your cold sore target area to itch or tingle. You may even notice a burning or dryness sensation. This stage could last a few hours to a few days before entering the more intense cold sore stages.
COLD SORE STAGE: # 3 - INFLAMMATION Your cold sore virus has now arrived at the surface and begins it's reproductive cycle by entering the cells at the end of the nerve. This causes a lot of swelling and redness at the cold sore site as your cells react to being invaded by the herpes cold sore virus .
COLD SORE STAGE: # 4 - PRE-SORE - Cold sores at this stage are defined by the appearance of cold sore vesicles. A full blown cold sore is not one big blister but a grouping of small blisters called vesicles. You will notice these vesicles as tiny, hard pimples or red bumps that are painfully sensitive to the touch.
COLD SORE STAGE: # 5 - OPEN SORE - Your most painful and contagious of the cold sore stages. All the vesicles break open and merge to create one big open, weeping sore. Depending on the severity, you may develop a fever and swollen lymph glands under the jaw.
The weeping fluid is teaming with newly born cold sore viruses. Touching this fluid, you could easily spread the cold sore virus to another part of your own body or to someone else - either by direct touch or shared objects such as hand towels, telephones, and faucets.
COLD SORE STAGE: # 6 - CRUSTING - A cold sore will develop a yellowish crust or scab as it begins to finally start the healing process. Your cold sore is still painful at this stage. More painful, however, is the constant cracking of your cold sore scab when you move or stretch your lips, as in smiling.
COLD SORE STAGE: # 7- HEALING - Cold sores, once scabbed over, begin healing from the inside out. As new skin forms under the crust, you will experience continued itching, irritation and some pain. Your cold sore virus is now retreating back to the nerve ganglia area where it will sleep until the next opportunity.
COLD SORE STAGE: # 8 - POST SCAB - Cold sores at this stage no longer have a visible cold sore scab and your skin has healed.
COLD SORE STAGE: # 2 - PRODROME - The cold sore virus reproductive cycle begins here. The cold sore virus travels down your nerve fibers to the surface. This movement causes your cold sore target area to itch or tingle. You may even notice a burning or dryness sensation. This stage could last a few hours to a few days before entering the more intense cold sore stages.
COLD SORE STAGE: # 3 - INFLAMMATION Your cold sore virus has now arrived at the surface and begins it's reproductive cycle by entering the cells at the end of the nerve. This causes a lot of swelling and redness at the cold sore site as your cells react to being invaded by the herpes cold sore virus .
COLD SORE STAGE: # 4 - PRE-SORE - Cold sores at this stage are defined by the appearance of cold sore vesicles. A full blown cold sore is not one big blister but a grouping of small blisters called vesicles. You will notice these vesicles as tiny, hard pimples or red bumps that are painfully sensitive to the touch.
COLD SORE STAGE: # 5 - OPEN SORE - Your most painful and contagious of the cold sore stages. All the vesicles break open and merge to create one big open, weeping sore. Depending on the severity, you may develop a fever and swollen lymph glands under the jaw.
The weeping fluid is teaming with newly born cold sore viruses. Touching this fluid, you could easily spread the cold sore virus to another part of your own body or to someone else - either by direct touch or shared objects such as hand towels, telephones, and faucets.
COLD SORE STAGE: # 6 - CRUSTING - A cold sore will develop a yellowish crust or scab as it begins to finally start the healing process. Your cold sore is still painful at this stage. More painful, however, is the constant cracking of your cold sore scab when you move or stretch your lips, as in smiling.
COLD SORE STAGE: # 7- HEALING - Cold sores, once scabbed over, begin healing from the inside out. As new skin forms under the crust, you will experience continued itching, irritation and some pain. Your cold sore virus is now retreating back to the nerve ganglia area where it will sleep until the next opportunity.
COLD SORE STAGE: # 8 - POST SCAB - Cold sores at this stage no longer have a visible cold sore scab and your skin has healed.
But use caution - under your new skin, healing is still taking place as the destroyed cells are regenerated. This produces a reddish area that may linger for another 2 to 14 days - depending on your personal healing speed.
You are still contagious until this red spot disappears. This waiting is the most frustrating of the cold sore stages.
WHAT YOU CAN DO NOW -
Cold sore over-the-counter medications, experts agree, are primarily comfort treatments for the cold sore stages. Some contain numbing agents that greatly reduce your pain. Some cold sore medications contain an anti-bacterial to prevent secondary infections.
None of these store-bought remedies have been shown to actually shorten the life-span of your cold sore stages.
Medical science has been working feverishly on a cure for the herpes virus but have not, as yet, had any real success in developing an effective cold sore remedy.
WHAT YOU CAN DO NOW -
Cold sore over-the-counter medications, experts agree, are primarily comfort treatments for the cold sore stages. Some contain numbing agents that greatly reduce your pain. Some cold sore medications contain an anti-bacterial to prevent secondary infections.
None of these store-bought remedies have been shown to actually shorten the life-span of your cold sore stages.
Medical science has been working feverishly on a cure for the herpes virus but have not, as yet, had any real success in developing an effective cold sore remedy.
Prescription anti-virals, both the oral versions and the topical salves, have been a dismal failure for the most part. Vaccines are being tested but are 3-4 years out yet. New breakthroughs could be just around the corner however.
But you don't need to wait!
More and more doctors now agree. There are times when natural remedies just seem to be the best choice. Often our ONLY choice. This is definitely true - right now - for cold sores.
Data studies have shown natural home remedies can reduce the cold sore events by as much as 79%. Not so with commercial cold sore remedies.
Yes! And, in fact, these home remedies can actually prevent your cold sores from taking place at all.
But you don't need to wait!
More and more doctors now agree. There are times when natural remedies just seem to be the best choice. Often our ONLY choice. This is definitely true - right now - for cold sores.
Data studies have shown natural home remedies can reduce the cold sore events by as much as 79%. Not so with commercial cold sore remedies.
Yes! And, in fact, these home remedies can actually prevent your cold sores from taking place at all.
If you are a cold sore victim, you would be well advised to look into these powerful natural remedies without delay for shortening or eliminating all your cold sore stages.
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Denny Bodoh is a newspaper manager and 38 year veteran health research writer. If you would like to know more about Cold Sore Treatment, cold sore stages and what you can do to get rid of cold sores fast, visit his excellent web site at:
http://www.be-cold-sore-free.com/
This Article has been viewed 219,477 times. (Not updated in real-time.)
More commentsHi this is my first sore...I think im not even sure if that's what it is. At first it felt like my lip was busted open at the lining of my bottom lip then I noticed something forming on the lip I kept cold compress on it and washed it with spa and water and then a scab came but not on the lining of my lip. The one on the lining looks crusted and yellow bt on the lip it never looked red or painful or like a pimple the one on the lip seems 2 b gettn smaller wut should I to please help its very depressingHi
Great to hear from you. Thank you very much for the 5 stars.
It is difficult to determine exactly what you are dealing with. It would be better if you were to see a doctor to examine it visually.
Of course, I cannot give medical advice here but if I had a situation that you are describing, I would be doing a couple things. First, I would be sucking on zinc lozenges. Secondly I would be putting honey on the sores.
Thanks for stopping by. I hope you are doing better today.
Denny
Hi there, thank you for your informative site. I have a quick question about this nasty guy on my lip. I about 5 days ago with a cold sore for the first time on my lower lip close to the center. I have never had a cold sore before and did not feel anything until I awoken with this guy on my lip.I am a 23 yr old college student and feel that I may have obtained it from about 2 straight weeks of partying and being in the sun. I went and got abreva and it didn't really seem to be doing the trick so I tried some other methods that I could come up with. I figured drying it out was smart so I topped it with calamine lotion and it really seemed to do a lot. This morning i went and purchased nail polish remover with acetone and applied it to the affected area and it dried it right up even more. Now I have a yellowish scab on my lip and trying to figure out the next best step to further the healing process. Any advice would be much appreciated. Thank you. -JohnHi John
Great to hear from you, John. Thank you very much for your kind words.
Yes, many folks like drying it out and have good luck with it. Calamine lotion is a good choice. Personally, I am against using acetone. Besides the fact that it is not even good to breath, much less to put on the mouth area, many people who have tried it have had trouble with it - including scarring.
I can't give you medical advice, but I can tell you what others have done in your position.
Zinc seems to work along with drying it out, according to many. Zinc lozenges are the cheapest but I prefer the zinc oral spray. You can spray it in your mouth as well as right on the sore area. Zinc gluconate is very easily absorbed, a strong antiviral and a great tissue healer.
Garlic is another cold sore treatment that gets rave reviews. You can eat it and/or put it directly on the sore.
Peppermint oil is often mixed with the garlic (or used separately). Peppermint seems to be extremely useful with healing cold sores.
You seem to be doing great so far, John. Hopefully it will be gone in a couple days. Be sure to be careful as you are contagious until it is totally gone. Don't want to pass it around to your friends.
Take care, John, and thank you for stopping by. Anything else, let me know here. If you want a ton more info, use the link at the top under my name - this will take you to my free web site.
Have a great week.
Denny
Hi Denny,
Thanks for the info! Not fun dealing with a cold sore. I have had one re-appear every 6-12 months for the last 10 years of my life. I have tried just about everything I can find over the counter or prescription. I was in Thailand a few months ago and they gave me "Acyclovair" and I have been taking 400 mg every-time I have felt a tingle come on, and it seems to have helped...until this last one caught me off guard. It was my first sore in over 15 months.Longest I have gone without one for as long as I can remember.
I am currently in the open sore/crusting phase which seems to last the longest for me. I try to leave the scab on best I can, but it usually falls off sometime during the middle of the morning. Over night i must sleep with my mouth open because it always cracks and bleeds by morning time.
Do you have a suggestion to keep the sore covered? Do I want to keep it moist or dried out by this time? Any insight would be greatly appreciated!
Thanks,
NickHi Nick
Great to hear from you, Nick. And thank you very much for the 5 stars.
Yes, the crusting stage can be very frustrating. I know exactly what you mean about the cracking and bleeding. Not fun for sure.
It seems there are some folks who do well by drying it out and others who prefer keeping it oiled. If I were you, with the scab falling off every day, I guess I would go with drying it out. There are several ways of doing that, depending on what is available. Some make up a salt paste and put that on. Works well actually. Other topical treatments for drying it out include witch hazel, hemorrhoid cream, calamine lotion or toothpaste. Mixing up an alum paste will also work.
If you have read some of the comments here, you probably have seen that some folks use acetone (fingernail polish remover). That stuff is nasty and should never be used on a sore of any kind.
I think you would not have to keep it covered if you dry it out. However, if you want to, my choice would be that bees wax lip balm. Vaseline would be a good second choice.
Hopefully you are much better today, Nick. Thank you so much for stopping by and have a great week.
Denny
Hi, I'm 16 and i've been getting coldsores since i can remember. I've tried everything.. abreva, salt & water paste, tooth paste, nail polish remover, prescription creams, prescription valtrex, icing it. Nothing seems to work :( When i get them i just want to hide from the world. Right now i have one on my nostril and its all yellow and crusty. Should i try to dry it out or keep it moist? What should i do when i shower? Should i try the garlic and olive oil mix? If so, how do i do that? What about zicam? Lysine? PLEASE HELPPP :((((Hi Sally
Wonderful to hear from you, Sally. Thank you very much for the 5 stars too - I certainly appreciate the vote of confidence.
Please understand that I cannot give you specific medical advice here. That is for a doctor that you visit in person. What I can do is share my experience and research as to what I and others have done in similar cases.
Obviously you have been to a doctor to be getting prescription medications. The pills are hard on the liver and the salves are producing poorer and poorer results as the virus develops immunity.
Abreva is actually not a bad product but its benefit is only in the early development stages of a cold sore attack. It has no value for speeding up healing. Fact is, people that do use it, find it best to discontinue its use when the sore breaks open. After that, it seems to hold you back. Actually, icing it during those early stages produces about the same results. And do not use ice once it scabs over as this, too, will slow down healing.
The garlic and olive oil cold sore remedy is very effective. It is the garlic oil that is the main player here. Some folks have a garlic crusher tool in the kitchen that works quite well. If not, other folks will slice up a clove in tiny slices and put in a small cup and put a little EXTRA VIRGIN olive oil on it. The garlic oils will infuse the olive oil in about an hour or so. You can also get garlic oil at the vitamin store if that is more convenient.
I have rubbed slices of garlic right on the sore area with excellent results. But, garlic is very strong and many report that it sort of burns sensitive skin. The olive oil helps buffer that effect. And, olives are a very strong anti-viral too - so you benefit that way also - that is, if you use the EXTRA VIRGIN oil that is slightly green.
When you shower, try to avoid rubbing it with the washcloth. This will avoid irritating it and will reduce the chance of spreading it to other locations.
Personally, I think Zicam is an awesome product, although there are other brands that may be just as good. It is the zinc that is such a help for stopping a viral infection and helping with the healing process. Any zinc lozenges that you suck on will be helpful as the zinc gets into your bloodstream very quickly through the oral tissue absorption. In the case of a nostril sore, like you have Sally, I would think that an oral zinc spray would be quite helpful. You can spray it in your mouth as directed and also directly on the sore. Also, it does not leave that metal aftertaste that I hate.
As far as the lysine is concerned, Sally, I would rather you go to my web site and read the articles I have there on the subject, especially the article "Repeated Cold Sores". I think this article is what you need if you get cold sores regularly. (Use the link at the top of this article just under my name.) There is so much to know about lysine - much more than I can put here now.
Oh, and Sally, don't use nail polish remover unless you don't mind risking a scar.
Take care, Sally, and have a great week.
Denny
Thank you so much!!!!!!!!!!!!Hey Sally
You are very welcome, Sally. It is a thrill for me to hear from nice people such as you.
Take care - hope you are better today!!
Denny
Hi Denny,
I've had cold sores for almost 10 years now. I currently have one, and it is in the crusting/healing stage. This is the first time I've had a big grouping of small blisters and it seems to be taking a lot longer to heal than it usually takes. The blisters/scabs are located on the edge of my upperlip, but the majority of it is on my actual skin. It's been one week since i've had this coldsore, and it's been in the same crusting/healing stage for nearly 5 days. What can I do to speed up the healing process? I'm really tempted to pick off the scab, but I'm scared that I might open up the cold sore again and I may have to repeat the healing process all over. Also, I was wondering if I'm allowed to kiss my boyfriend during this time?
Hi Sarah
Wonderful to hear from you, Sarah. I am not allowed to give medical advice here, but I can relate my and other people's experience.
First, your cold sores are very contagious from the very beginning (itching stage) until final healing (the redness is totally gone). During this time, the crusting stage you are in is the ABSOLUTE WORST time to be kissing anyone. The area is teeming with virus particles looking for a new home. The risk to your boyfriend is about 96% right now.
It sounds like the healing has stalled out for some reason - quite likely because the virus is still active at that location. There are two things that commonly cause this problem, according to what others have experienced.
One is that there is too much of the protein Arginine in the adjacent tissues and the virus is being well fed. Secondly, the area has a low (acid) pH which the virus loves.
You did not mention Lysine so I suspect you have not tried it. Lysine is a simple protein that helps bind up Arginine and reduces the availability to the cold sore virus. The virus does not hang around when there is insufficient Arginine in the area.
A lowered pH level is very inviting to this virus, in part because it means less oxygen saturation of the tissues (oxygen is essential for immunity and fast healing). Many things cause a lowering of pH toward the acid side. This may include any type of stress (mental or physical), illness, injury and food choices.
There is a lot more you need to know about both the Lysine and the pH connection in regard to cold sores. I have an article on my web site that talks about both these issues. It is called "Repeated Cold Sores" and can be accessed through the link at the top of this article under my name.
Picking off the scab normally complicates the infection and slows healing, according to many who have reported doing it. But, I know what you mean - you just want to be done with it. A couple things may be used to get rid of the scab quicker and safely. One is applying Vaseline. Another is drying it out using something as simple as a salt paste.
Hopefully this and my article will help you, Sarah. And I hope I got back to you fast enough to prevent you kissing your bf.
Take care, Sarah, and let me know if the article helps.
Denny
I have suffered from cold sores for many years and in the last several years have been using listerine several times a day on a clean q tip. I pour a small amount in a cup and dab the cold sore. As soon as I feel the tingle, I start with the listerine. Of all the remedies that I have tried this is the best. I will never use anything else again.
tThanks for your input Bob.
The key to success is to find what works best for you. Each person is unique and some things work better than others, depending on your physiology.
That is the purpose of this comment thread, and of my web site - to share what works for others so you can develop the best cold sore treatment plan for your life.
Listerine is an excellent product and I have talked to several people who love it for this purpose, as well as other things, such as athlete's foot.
Take care Bob and thanks for stopping by.
Denny
I have a question rather than a comment.The past 2 times my boyfriend has had a cold sore I have gotten one about a week latter.He swears up and down that I couldn't have gotten it from him.Everytime I have ever gotten a cold sore it's been in the same spot on the left side of my mouth,he says if I got it from him it wouldn't be in that spot.Please tell me he's wrong.Hi Kim
Wonderful to hear from you Kim.
I suspect that, as you kiss, his is on the opposite side and doesn't match up? I would suspect that would be his argument.
The fact is, when you have an active cold sore, usually your saliva also contains the virus particles so it can infect any part of your partners lip, face, nose or whatever.
The thing is, Kim, is that when you are infected, the virus chooses a nerve fiber nearby and that is generally its home for life. The virus is with you for life and when it causes a cold sore, it will be in the same place each time. If you start getting cold sores in a different location - like the right side of your mouth - that is another infection incident. Basically you have another virus "colony" now living in the nerve fiber at that location.
You are not catching a new sore each time he kisses you - your virus colony is, however, probably being activated by him. Your viruses can sense there is activity going on and that the environment is favorable for replication. That is when your virus
comes out of hiding, moves to the surface along the nerve and creates that sore.
But, Kim, you really should not be kissing if either one of you has an active sore. You can infect new locations on either one of you. It can be dangerous. What if you got it in the eye? That could cause permanent damage of the cornea.
Take care, Kim and thank you so much for stopping by.
Denny
Hey i had my first cold sore, and it crusted a week ago fell off, crusted again and then fell off but the cold sore was still there and slightly swollen. I iced it and now it seems flatter, but the yellow puss almost looks white. is that normal? and I am putting anbesol and neosporin on it but Im not sure if i should do that or try something else to dry it instead? your thoughts?
Hi Jack
Great to hear from you, Jack. Thank you immensely for the 5 stars.
Yes, the puss sounds normal. Quite likely the white or clear puss is not so virus dense. Anbesol is a very good product for reducing the discomfort for sure as it numbs the damaged nerve endings.
Neosporin may not be very helpful, however. It is an antibiotic which means that it kills or defends against bacteria-caused infections. It has no known beneficial effect on viruses. A cold sore is a virus-caused sore. The best you can expect from Neosporin in your application is that it will prevent a possible secondary bacterial infection. This is not common but has happened.
If you want to dry it out here are several methods used by my people. A thick paste of salt and water. A gob of white toothpaste. Witch-hazel. Hemorrhoid cream. Alum & water paste.
If me, I would also be cleansing the area with peroxide or alcohol first.
Some topical treatments that you can use that will directly attack the virus are:
1. Garlic - crushed fresh or oil, mixed with EXTRA VIRGIN olive oil.
2. Peppermint oil or crushed fresh peppermint or lemon balm.
3. Coconut oil
4. Honey - raw is best but any will do. You have to go to a health food store or a beekeeper to get raw. We are currently experimenting with mixing fresh crushed garlic oils with honey. I believe this will be a great topical remedy that you will be hearing more about. As is usually the case, remember you heard it here first.
5. Tea tree oil. From Australia, this has been used extensively for all types of viral, bacterial and fungal infections. It is a first aid kit in a bottle.
Those are just a few, Jack, that could be helpful to you. You really want to chase the virus away and nothing you are using will do that. There are many more home remedies for cold sores at my 3daycoldsorecure web site (link at top under my name) plus a lot more facts, tips and tricks that will help you build a good treatment and prevention strategy.
Take care, Jack, and thanks for stopping by.
Denny
Another question: is it normal for my glands to reswell? they were going back down and then swelled back up after I iced the sore where the scab fell off.Hi Jack
No, it is not normal to re-swell. What is happening, I believe, is that the cold sore is reactivating. The virus is lurking in the area and will come back to replicate more virus if the opportunity is there. From reading your previous letter, you are not using any treatment that is anti-viral.
A normal, healthy body will generally get rid of a cold sore without any help from you - as long as you do not create the "perfect environment" , so to speak.
Two things, in my experience, could be working against you.
1. Too much Arginine in your diet. Arginine enables this virus. Increased Lysine intake has the ability to reduce the Arginine availability. Also, reducing intake of cereal grains (baked goods, breads, breakfast cereal) for a couple days will help starve out the virus. Grains are very high in Arginine.
2. Your body is not alkaline enough. A perfect alkalinity is 7.35 to 7.4 on the pH scale. Generally, stress, diet or poor habits can cause this to drop toward the acid side. This creates a perfect environment for viruses and bacteria.
You must look into these two connections. The article "Repeated Cold Sores" on my web site mentioned previously is the article you should read immediately.
Thanks, Jack, for stopping by again. Stay in touch.
Denny
Great article!
A couple of days ago I had a pimple just under my lip, I then squeezed the pimple and would occasionally rub the spot as I quite often do with pimples and re pick when the scab forms(I know I shouldn't just some times when I am concentrating hard I do it unknowingly!) It has now turned into a small round circle of what looks like an infection type thing. It kind of looks like a cold sore but I haven't had any discomfort at all with it. Doesn't hurt or tingle at all and only notice it when I move my lip as it hit's the scabs. Do you think this is a cold sore or just a infected pimple? My partner has never had any cold sores and I have always been careful to not share drinks/food with anyone that has a cold sore.
Cheers,
CraigenHey Craigen
Great to hear from you, Craigen. Cool name. And, thank you very much for the complement and the five stars.
In my opinion, it sounds like you are dealing with an infected pimple not a cold sore. Cold sore symptoms are pretty distinct and recognizable - and painful.
Some topical treatments you could use that might be beneficial for a bacterial infection Neosporin, garlic oil or tea tree oil.
You are very smart to not share drinks/food with anyone with a cold sore. You wouldn't believe all the letters I get from people who did and now carry the cold sore virus.
Take care, Craigen, and have a great week.
Denny
Hi Denny,
This is more of a comment rather than question. I am extremely happy to see that you seem to be deeply involved in this thread and in your research. I have suffered from cold sores my entire life and have sort of just accepted them as they are. You're advice seems highly knowledgeable and highly professional as you keep from "knowing all" and allow people the option of a personal professional opinion, i.e. Doctors. It's not often, in fact, it's extremely seldom you find someone on the internet who has an unbiased opinion on any topic, much less a topic regarding medical advice that many people do not understand. I just wanted to stop by to tell you that you give me hope that there ARE good people out there trying to help others, as opposed to those who try to sell a particular product or sell a sure set "cure". I just wanted to thank you. I have learned some great things from this thread. I wish you the best of luck in you research (personally!). Keep fighting the good fight.
Much appreciated
MattHi Matt
Thank you so much for your kind complements, Matt. It really does mean a lot to me to feel that I am doing some good. Thank you.
You sure are right, Matt, about there being so much crap on the internet. That was the frustration I had when I first started researching cold sores and other medical issues on the internet 15 years ago.
At any rate, I was as frustrated as you sound, and still am today.
Take care, Matt and have a great weekend!!! Thank you again.
Denny Bodoh
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